From America's founding until the ratification of the 13th Amendment in December 1865, slavery was legal in the United States. Enslaved individuals had their labor and lives controlled by their owners. However, they also had families and formed communities. Some enslaved people engaged in acts of resistance, and others self-emancipated, claiming freedom for themselves. 

 

In 1857, the Supreme Court ruled in Dred Scott v. John Sanford that Black Americans were not and could not be citizens. They had no legal rights and could be bought, sold, or traded without their consent. The 14th Amendment (ratified in July 1868) negated this ruling and granted citizenship to “all persons born or naturalized in the United States,” which included newly emancipated individuals.

 

The history of enslavement is complex, and its continued interpretation is key to how we understand the changing definition of ‘American.’ It also shows us that the ideals of the Declaration of Independence have been - and continue to be - negotiated.